B.+Language,+Linguistcs+&+Teaching


==== ** LANGUAGE, LINGUISTICS & TEACHING ** ====

**INTRODUCTION**
====** Throughout world history, bilingualism and multilingualism have been the norm and not the exception. Dual language instruction was prevalent and may have been the norm in the Ancient World. As for the United States, we have always been a land of immigration, and the education system has gone through many different incarnations throughout its relatively short history. It was quite surprising to learn that dual language instruction has been widely available in the US since our inception as a nation. After World War I, the nation's nationalistic tendencies limited the **** support for the bilingual programs, and it wasn't until after WWII that the political climate began to shift, and many new bilingual programs were created, largely as a result of the civil rights movement. ** ====


====After researching the teaching, language and linguistic aspects of bilingualism, the most helpful resources seem to be those that help us in understanding where the theoretical and practical knowledge intersect. The theory and research behind bilingual education suggest innumerable advantages for children. Theory tells us about the stages that a child moves through in order to attain bilingualism. A thorough understanding of the linguistics systems informs the teaching practice of educators by clearly defining the challenges of second language learners in our classrooms. Understanding the linguistic systems allows us to analyze which methods and programs work best for language learners. The practical conclusions inform teaching styles and classroom environment, encouraging teachers to meet the children at their stage of development and scaffold their growth to the next level. We also have learned that as teachers, we must not only understand the theory and science behind language development of children, but we must also be acutely sensitive and perceptive to a child's cultural background. Culture and language are inextricably linked. To lack insight into a child's culture is to lack the ability to scaffold his development in a classroom. These particular sites offer a wide variety of strategies and implementations for creating a successful bilingual classroom and community within school. ====


==== By looking closely at the backgrounds of the students and their communities, and also by listening to their conversations, we will be able to locate relevant resources to support their growth as English Language Learners (ELLs). These sites provide us with insight into students' abilities, families, schools, communities, languages, and offer professional resources to support all language learners.  ====

**MAIN POINTS** 
====1. Linguistics, the study of language, is divided into systems to help us understand language and its development. These systems include phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. ==== ==== 2. Monol ingualism is now the exception, not the rule, as more than two thirds of the world's population speak more than one language. Our educational systems need to adjust to and support this reality. ====


====3. There are multiple cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural benefits to bilingualism. Not only has it been shown that bilingual children have higher self-esteem, but research has also shown them to have greater cognitive flexibility and better analytical reasoning skills. ==== ====4. To promote English literacy and bi-literacy in schools, language diversity and its implications in the United States need to be understood by educators and policy makers. Literacy in any language needs to be viewed as a resource, rather than as a liability. ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">5. Though there are many different models and approaches to bilingual programs, each school must respond to the needs of the students, families, and surrounding community. A successful program depends on teacher training, a supportive school community, and collaboration with families. ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">6. According to current research, additive bilingual programs that initially support and scaffold learning in the first language (L1) have been shown to be most effective for ELLs long term. It takes four to seven years for a student to develop Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) in a second language (L2), and conceptual ideas must be developed in L1 in order to transfer skills and concepts to L2. ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">** 7. Though there are disagreements within the linguistics and teaching communities, much research has shown that in order for a student to be able to read fluently in L2, s/he must first master literacy in the L1. This is referred to as sequential bi-literacy. Once the concepts of literacy are in place in L1, they can transfer the skills to L2. ** ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">** 8. Though many concepts of literacy are transferred from L1 to L2 in a sequential bi-literacy program, there are many strategies for teachers of second language learners in order to promote a confident transition into reading in L2. For example, reading comprehension strategies may **** include teaching students about summarizing, sequencing, inferring, comparing and contrasting, questioning, problem-solving, using background knowledge, distinguishing between fact and opinion, and finding the main idea. ** ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> ** 1. Bilingual Families Perth. (2003) Bilingualism //. // Perth, Australia: Author. Retrieved on October 7, 2009 from: []  ****  The ability to explain the benefits of bilingualism to families is crucial for educators. Knowing the benefits help the families and teachers stick to the decision to raise or teach a bilingual child, even when times are difficult. Many of the benefits are evident, such as being able to communicate to all family members or friends. Also, bilingualism can foster cultural understanding and sensitivity to multiculturalism. Further, there are numerous cognitive advantages. Bilingualism enhances analytical skills, deepens logical reasoning, increases visual-social aptitudes, and supports cognitive flexibility. In terms of social advantages, bilingualism has been shown to increase self-esteem and enhance social skills while developing greater social sensitivity. Educators in Australia recommend starting the process of bilingualism as early as possible, at the birth of the child. A parents' commitment, encouragement, patience and perseverance will ensure a child's success. Monolingualism is now becoming the exception, two thirds of the world's population speaks more than one language. (OR) ** ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">** 2. Center for Applied Linguistics. (1992) // What is Linguistics? Washington, DC: Online Resources: FAQ. // Retrieved on September 23, 2009 from  **  []  ==== ====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> ** This article defined linguistics as the scientific study of language. **** For a very long time people have been concerned with studying language, as it was mentioned on the dialogues of Plato. Modern linguists have traced linguistics to the beginning of the 17th and 18th centuries. At the end of the 19th century, another group of scholars in the United States, Frantz Boas and Edward Sapir were interested in native language. Some specialists, such as Noam Chomsky, developed the notion of universal grammar. As of today the field of linguistics has grown and people are concerned about major areas of study in this field of language such as phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse analysis and pragmatics.(MB) **    ==== ====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**  3. Colorin Colorado // (2007) Reading Comprehension Strategies for English Language // // Learners. // Arlington, VA : Reading Rockets. Retrieved on September 23, 2009 from  ** []  ==== ====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> ** This article explains tremendous strategies for teaching reading comprehension to ELLs. Students learn processing skills to comprehend reading material. These methods help students organize information andlead students to be active in acquisition of conceptual knowledge. Students activate prior knowledge as a reading strategy for comprehension of new information  ** and  make personal connections to text. (MB) ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">** 4. Cummins, J. (2000). // Bilingual Children’s Mother Tongue // : //Why is it Important for Education//? Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto. Retrieved on September 23, 2009 from ** []  ==== ====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> ** Jim Cummins **** argues that when children have a solid foundation in their native language they can transfer it to the second language learning. For example, when children know how to tell the time in their native language ** ** they do not need to re-learn the same concept, all they need to do is acquire the label for these terms in English. Therefore, **** rejecting a child’s language is to reject the child. Cummins asks us to stop seeing language and cultural differences as a problem to fix instead to see them as a part of society. (MB) **   ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**  5. Peterson, B., & Salas, K.D. (2004) // Working Effectively with English Language Learners, The New Teacher Book: Finding Purpose, Balance, and Hope During Your // First Years in the Classroom. // Milwaukee, WI:  // Rethinking Schools, Ltd. // Retrieved October 3, 2009 from: [] //** ==== ====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">** There are innumerable strategies for improving instruction for ELLs. Teachers should speak slowly and clearly, prepare ELLs for challenging whole class lessons ahead of time, and use lecture and verbal instruction as little as possible. Whenever possible, the teacher should work with small groups of children as opposed to whole class lessons. In reading blocks, a teacher should seek out literature that relates to or features the students' language/cultural groups. Most importantly, teachers must value bilingualism and encourage students to maintain their first language at home and in the community. Further, a teacher can become more culturally competent by learning some words of the languages spoken by the ELLs in her class and by showing interest in the cultures of the students in a class. If a student feels like his/her home language is appreciated and validated, s/he can more easily transfer the knowledge already acquired to the second language. (OR) ** ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> ** 6. The Education Alliance at Brown University. (2006) //Language Support for Students in the Home and in School//. Providence, RI: Author. Retrieved on September 23, 2009 from ** [] Students in bilingual and ESL programs meet other students from different cultures and linguistic backgrounds that can influence their learning environment. Knowing students is to know their differences such as socio-economic background, culture and language. It is important to do research on students' backgrounds  and cultures to assure a positive classroom environment where all learners can demonstrate respect for each individual culture. Therefore, classroom community should be created by all personnel and administrators to give ELLs the opportunity to learn socially and academically. (MB)   ==== ====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**  7. WestEd. (2005) // Bilingualism. San Diego, // CA: Author. Retrieved October 4, 2009 from: [] The California Department of Education gives an overview of bilingualism, which is present in every country of the world. There are three different pathways to becoming bilingual. The first is simultaneous bilingualism, which is learning two languages at the same time. Second, successive bilingualism is learning a second language after basic mastery of the first, and third, receptive bilingualism is when a person is not fully or balanced bilingual, but understands most of what is being said in the second language. There are several key factors for bilingualism to occur. The age of exposure as well as the extent and type of the program effects success. Not all children will be successful at acquiring a second language, and the success is dependent on external and internal factors. External factors include the frequency of access to speakers of the second language, as well as emotional support in the context of learning the second language. Internal factors are inherent cognitive abilities and limitations, social skills, and individual temperament. If bilingualism is valued in the family and the school community, the child will likely learn and maintain both languages. This site highlights the importance of social and emotional support as key to the preschoolers' experience in a bilingual setting. A teacher's understanding and warmth contributes to the acquisition and maintenance of the second language. (OR) ** ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> ** 8. WestEd. (2005) // Preschool English Learners. San Diego, // CA: Author. Retrieved October 4, 2009 from: ** []** This project offers teaching strategies, materials, and training for teachers of ELLs age 3-5 as well as in-depth information about the theory and practice of bilingual education. The preschool setting is ideal for language development, because language is used in concrete, conversational, and meaningful interactions. Children move in and out of different stages of learning a second language; an insightful and well-informed teacher can scaffold the learning to help the children move forward. The stages are home language, observational/listening stage, telegraphist and formulaic stage, and finally, fluent use of second language stage. Strategies to guide the children through the stages include: starting with what the child knows, scaffolding communication, providing safe havens, getting help from English speaking children, and expanding and extending what the child already knows. This project outlines very clearly the practical strategies for supporting second language development. (OR) **  ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> ** 9. Wiley, T.G. (1997) // Myths about language diversity and literacy in the United States. ( // Eric Digest # // ED407881) Washington, DC: Adjunct ERIC // Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education. Retrieved on October 7, 2009 from: ** ** [] ** ==== ====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">** There are many myths about language diversity and linguistics, and analyzing ****  them can help dispel preconceived notions. The author describes the US as a multilingual nation, where English is the dominant language. There is a myth of English monolingualism in this country and a pervasive belief that English is the only language that "counts," making the language diversity a problem rather than a resource. The author also believes that ESL is not the best approach for ELLs. He writes that current research on bilingual education indicates that support in the native language is generally more effective than the English-only approach. (OR) ** ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">** 10. Yedling, J. (2003). //Meeting the Literacy Needs of English Language Learners//. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Retrieved on September 23, 2009 from [|http://knowledgeloom.org/elemlit/ELLs_meetnds.jsp] ** ====

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====<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">ELLs differ based on their languages, culture, and that they are native language speakers who acquire English. Teachers must concentrate on five components to teach ELLs reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, fluency and comprehension. Often times ELLs go through a "silent period" while learning. They observe more then they speak but they participate in activities that require gesture, physical movement, drawing, and single or short phrases. Therefore, teachers need to give ELLs more time and opportunity to observe, listen and participate in the daily activities to acquire academic English. (MB) ====